Eye Gnat (<i>Liohippelates</i>, Diptera: Chloropidae) Biology, Ecology, and Management: Past, Present, and future

Abstract Eye gnats (mainly Liohippelates pusio and collusor) are pest species that have been the subject of considerable research extension activity in United States since 1930s. They cause discomfort stress—and may transmit pathogens—to humans animals. We reviewed abundant literature on biological, ecological, management aspects eye gnats. gnat biology life cycles well studied agricultural systems. However, their ecology, roles trophic cascades, functions natural ecosystems, particularly forests, not documented. Additionally, there remain opportunities to improve traps, repellents, deterrents, controls for The substantial substantive early work these insects provides a strong foundation future investigations extension.